Caligula opened with popular reforms—amnesties, tax relief, transparency—but after a severe illness turned to theatrical provocations, fiscal exactions, and ritual self‑cult, alienating elites and Praetorians and prompting his assassination: coercive strategy over madness.
From Augustus to Constantine, the Praetorian Guard evolved from imperial protectors into kingmakers—policing Rome and wielding military force to decide succession.
The Roman Senate: how SPQR, auctoritas vs. imperium, and figures from Cato to Cicero and Caesar shaped the Republic, its fall, and the Senate’s lasting legacy.
